An Analysis of Irony in Emily Dickinson’s “I Felt a Funeral in My Brain”

The whole poem was in the past tense, just like relating to the poet’s nostalgic retrospective, telling a story that truly happened to her. What’s so scary a part about the poem is, if without the first line, the major subject — a â€Å"Funeral† that Emily once went through by herself, offering readers an angle of view from their own coffins, alive. The poem, thus, has put up a question probably with no answer: â€Å"what if you died and were about to be buried, but were still conscious all the time through the funeral?†.Since a coffin can directly represent a loss of â€Å"life†, Emily tried to make use of that sense of loneliness and isolation (yet devoid of a feeling of terror), which can be found in a coffin, to denote a thing worse than death — a loss of â€Å"mind†, as opposed to a loss of â€Å"life†. In fact, that’s just the beginning of Emily’s irony, which is, burying someone that merely lost †Å"herself (or himself)† instead of her (or his) â€Å"life†. The point is that in Emily’s mind, it was even worse than death to lose one’s own â€Å"Self’.The first imagery showing up and running through the whole poem is the â€Å"Mourners†. In common sense, they were supposed to sob or wail over the lost person; while on the contrary, there were no sounds of sadness at all in the funeral, which is quite ironic. The only sound that the poem was trying to convey is their stupid march — treading, treading — and their so-called service — beating, beating, resembling an army of cumbersome robots in their â€Å"Boots of Lead† disposing a bin of trashes or nastily, corpses.Weirdly enough, no mourning attire, no face, no interaction (for example, bestowing a rose on the dead, or whispering muffled with one another about the dead), and even no slightest feeling are described, at least for the sake of the dead person; ins tead, all in all is merely a simple statement of a routine procedure (arriving — taking a seat — waiting for the â€Å"Bell† ringing — then burying the coffin), so as to give the poem, in its least sense, the tone of a funeral procession. Yes, ironically, the least important thing seemed to be the dead guy; while the formality of the process was what only mattered.In pursuit of consistency, Emily also used a ballad meter style, of which the strong rhythmic tone could exactly cater to the marching sound and play as similar to a dirge, and the simplicity sensed in this meter could echo with that of the funeral. In addition, this simple rhythm had been also achieved by the repetition of the same words — â€Å"treading and treading†, â€Å"beating, beating† and â€Å"dropped down, down†, where the sense of motion had been created for readers to feel by themselves and been stressed by alliteration as well.However, on the other hand, the â€Å"simplicity†, both in the sense of the funeral and the â€Å"Mourners†, made a sharp contrast with the poet’s relatively complicated â€Å"mind†. And ironically, the only thing that was very likely to satirise that stupid â€Å"simplicity† had gone mad or even been lost, which is why Emily felt a Funeral in her â€Å"Brain†. Besides the visual imagery of â€Å"Mourners†, the sound of a â€Å"Bell† is another auditory one and its tolling was meant to signal the end of the funeral, which is, in fact, an echo to the imagery of â€Å"Mourners†.In the fourth Stanza, Emily referred â€Å"being† to â€Å"an ear† — partly in that the living â€Å"Mourners†, just like the lifeless robots without the ability of independent thinking, was awaiting the next-step instructions, and apart from a heart, a brain created to sense feelings and thinking, an ear was the only organ they needed to simply ab sorb orders to proceed the funeral; partly in that hearing a sound can be a sign of â€Å"being† and is privileged to â€Å"the being†, both of which she was no longer in possession, and this in part explains why â€Å"Silence† and she belonged to some strange Race.And â€Å"wrecked†, â€Å"solitary† were the only feelings that she had been having since being part of this â€Å"Race†. Apparently, the â€Å"Mourners† are a metaphor for all the people in her life that once mattered and since they were of the same race, they talked and acted in the same way that unfortunately she would never approve of and would do her best to satirize by despising them with a pen. She thought that staying reclusive could help maintain her superiority over the stir of the society, but is this really the case?At first, they began their treading and gradually, their noise started to make sense and affect her in some way. â€Å"That Sense was breaking thro ugh — †indicates that she had a momentary impression that her sense (or her mind) was escaping and continued to go away as the dash implies. The treading evolved into the beating, which confused her and finally managed to numb her mind. For them, the treading and the beating would never be enough for such a complicated and mature mind; thus, they planned to beat it down, put it into a coffin and bury it; and before all that happened, they tortured it again and again, as â€Å"with the same Boots of Lead, again† implies. When the mind could no longer bear the torture, it came to an end with the â€Å"Bell† tolling. Finally, finally it surrendered and was determined to be estranged from the outside world and stay lonely â€Å"in her coffin† by stopping communicating with those â€Å"ears†, but the torment went on. Everything seemed fine until â€Å"a Plank in Reason, broke† and she began to descend — madness, madness, madness. Wha t could have been more awful if there was a hole on her mind?But what’s worse, even though she kept dropping, experiencing all types of mental disorders, there was no demise and there would never be one, which means that she had to be kept under torture and pain. This is the most horrible thing, worse than death. The ironic part lies in that the pain she had been through was actually brought about by her own self. She built herself a coffin to avoid harm or obstacles in her way and keep her mind intact, which unavoidably led to her emptiness or even depression. There is a turn in rhyme in the last stanza — â€Å"And I dropped down, and down- /And hit a World, at every plunge, /And finished knowing thenâ€Å".The use of the slant rhyme wakes us up out of the boredom of the marching sound, and this turn also marks the waking up of Emily when she realized that something was wrong with her mind. This blink of realization was actually caused by the speed of the dropping, as Emily used â€Å"plunge† to depict her situation. Before the â€Å"realization†, she was by no means self-conscious of what was going on and the fact that everything taking place in her brain was all made up by her own self as a way to flee away from the outside world.However, ironically, no matter how hard she tried to bury her mind, she was just fleeing away to another state — mad, solitary, wrecked and worst of all, hopeless. After the â€Å"realization†, she was disillusioned, which is actually even more tragic, because there was no way to bury her mind but merely transforming its state into abnormality. Instead of a period, Emily used a dash to end the poem, which tells the readers that there would be no end to this hopeless process but an eternal struggle with self-consciousness — an eternal inner torture.

Ethics in Research The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment Essay

The field of medicine has experienced rapid growth with in the few 150 to 200 years, and over the years we have learn that many of these scientific developments were made at the expense of unorthodox procedures and research carried out with little to no concern on the unethical aspects of the research, as medical science advance the researchers place little or no effort towards informing subjects about the nature of experiments. Tuskegee syphilis experiments in Alabama was on especially an infamous experiment, from ‘‘1932 to 1972’‘ the U.S. Public Health Services (PHS) conducted an experiment on 400 African American males in the late stages of syphilis these men, for the most part illiterate sharecroppers from one of the poorest counties in Alabama, were told what disease they were suffering from or of its seriousness, informed that they were being treated for â€Å"Bad Blood† their Doctors had no intention of curing them for syphilis at all. The data for the experiment was to be collected for autopsies of the men, and they were thus deliberately left to degenerate under the ravages of tertiary syphilis which can include tumors, heart disease, paralysis, blindness, insanity and death, this is the most unethical, immoral and genocidal act carried out and funded my U.S. Public Health Services. Coercion or leverage was the main tactic the PHS researchers use to recruit their test subjects, whom was poor uneducated sharecroppers that luck the resources needed to seek out side help, by misinforming the participants about the truth of their illness (syphilis), but non the less this was a means for the PHS to carry out their hidden agenda, to make them aware that they do have an illness and The U.S. Public Health Services was there to help treat them of their so call bad blood pandemic, this act of coercion provided the PHS the leverage they need to recruit necessary research subjects. Because of this the consent acquired by the researchers from the research subjects was invalid because the information provided by the researchers was subjects was invalid, this violation of inform consent stemmed further, the researchers did not explain the expectancy and severity of the research, the researchers deliberately did not inform the subjects  that they have the right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once it has begun. The spider web of lies and deception planed and carried out by The U.S. Public Health Services researchers had no plans of curing the syphilis pandemic, the deception in this research is the main underlying reason why this research study is unethical in nature, rather than the actual deception itself, the deliberate use of deception in this research resulted in the deaths of a 100 African Americans research subjects, these deaths was actually apart of the research it self. ‘’The study actively kept the men away from treatment, even after penicillin became widely used for the treatment of syphilis in 1950s. In February of 1969, the PHS decided to continue the  study and to continue to deny the men antibiotic treatment even though penicillin had become established as the standard treatment for syphilis, because it assumed that the disease was far too advanced for it to be treated. Associated Press reporter Jean Heller broke the story on July 25, 1972 on the front-page of the New York Times and the study stopped at once’’ After the research had ended the only seventy-four participants of 400 infected subjects had still been a live after the study got exposited, In August 1972, an ad hoc committee found the study to have been â€Å"ethically unjustified† and argued that penicillin should have been given to the men upon its discovery. 40 years after the experiment had ended the test subjects was not Adequate debriefed on the true nature of the study and the long-term effects of the of the syphilis on their bodies, wife and kids. After the press release of the Tuskegee syphilis experiment the test subjects was provided with little to no confidentiality from the press or PHS after the findings of the research was publish. The experiment diversity was limited to African Americans males, who were the carry of the syphilis. References William J. Clinton, â€Å"Remarks,† in Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, ed. Susan M. Reverby (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 574-577. Thomas G. Benedek and Jonathan Erlen, â€Å"The Scientific Environment of the Tuskegee Study of Syphilis, 1920-1960, Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 43 no. 1 (1999), 1-30. Ad Hoc Tuskegee Syphilis Panel, â€Å"Selections from the Final Report,† in Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, ed. Susan M. Reverby (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 166. Jean Heller, â€Å"Syphilis Victims in the U.S. Went Untreated for 40 years,† in Tuskegee’s Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, ed. Susan M. Reverby (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 116-117. anessa N. Gamble and Deborah Stone. â€Å"U.S. Policy on Health Inequities: the Interplay of Politics and Research,† Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law 31, (2006): 93-126. Ruth R. Faden, Susan E. Lederer , J. E. Lederer, and Juan D. Moreno, â€Å"U.S. Medical Researchers, the Nuremberg Doctors Trial, and the Nuremberg Code,† Journal of the American Medical Association, 276 no. 20(1996): 1668. Martin S. Pernick, â€Å"The patient’s role in medical decision making: a social history of informed consent in medical therapy,† in Making Health Care Decisions: A Report on the Ethical and Legal Implications of Informed Consent in the Patient-Practitioner Relationship, President’s Commission for Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 3 1-25.

Assignment 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Assignment 3 - Essay Example Garstein et al. studied the development of temperament across four cultures and found different temperaments in infants and adults in every culture (55). They found that Japanese and Russian infants were known to have â€Å"the highest and the second highest levels of fearfulness, respectively†; while, U.S. and Polish infants received â€Å"relatively lower ratings from their caregivers† (55). Super et al. (136) also studied cross-cultural differences in temperament in children belonging to seven western cultures and found that the participants â€Å"showed both general tendencies and culture-speciï ¬ c patterns† in their behavior. McCrae et al. studied the nature versus nurture debate and agreed with the fact that, along with biological factors that are responsible for the makeup of personality, â€Å"the intrinsic maturation of personality is complemented by the culturally conditioned development of characteristic adaptations† (173). Similarly, Wood an d Eagly studied cross-cultural difference of men and women in non-industrial societies, and found that they showed different attitudes towards â€Å"the economic and social structural aspects of societies† (699). These studies strengthen the idea that culture differences are equally important to study if we want to understand the variations in temperament globally. I have personally experienced that my friends belonging to different cultures have different temperaments which includes the level of happiness and sorrow they express; fright or boldness they show; and, anger or patience with which they handle things. For example, three of my friends who belong to Europe get panicked over little things; while, two of my friends belonging to Asia laugh over even big problems. My European friends are way too liberal about their lifestyle, like coming back home late in the nights and staying in apartments other than their parents’. On the

Case study Analisis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analisis - Case Study Example Another probable cause is the old age of the aircraft. This particular aircraft was nineteen years old and had operated for 35,496 hours (Aubury, 2012). As such, its frames, joints, and skin could have been stretched as the fuselage had been pumped up the maximum level of pressure (Hawaiian Steam Engineering, 1997). The probable main cause of the accident, as determined by the NTSB, points to the fact the accident happened majorly due to structural and mechanical factors. The failure of the lap joint S-1OL and the fuselage of the upper lobe are all mechanical factors; however, there are contributing factors like which could cause the accident (Aviation Safety Network, 2012). These structural and mechanical factors were widely attributed to the failure to conduct continuous and substantive mechanism and inspection on the aircraft by the Aloha Airlines. This structural and mechanical condition was also attributed to corrosion, since the aircraft was to operate in a coastal environment and was, therefore, exposed to humidity and salt. Its old age is another reason for the mechanical breakdown that led to the accident (MacPherson, 1998). In addition, complacency on the part of Boeing about fuselage led to the mechanical failure. While Boeing was concerned about its old aircraft, its engineers had a naive faith that if a fuselage cracked anywhere, a â€Å"lead crack† would grow along the skin until it reaches the frame of the fuselage, then turn at right angles and a triangular shaped tear would eventually blow out and dump fuselage pressure safely (Hawaiian Steam Engineering, 1997). Because of this complacency, the most of the structural and mechanical aspects regarding the fuselage were ignored and this ultimately led to the accident. The Aloha Airlines also seemed to have ignored too many safety recommendations from the

Motivating Junior High Students to Learn Math Research Paper

Motivating Junior High Students to Learn Math - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that if junior high school students could be motivated to learn mathematics, they could achieve lifelong success since mathematics is the core of other academic disciplines such as accounting, construction, engineering, and medicine. Students in junior high school are energized by four main goals which include success, curiosity, creativity and satisfying relationships in their studies. In motivating students to learn mathematics, the teacher should ensure student engagement in learning. Engaged students are committed to their learning despite any challenges or obstacles and aim at accomplishing their studies. Educators agree that motivating junior high school student to learn mathematics is challenging. The social structure has changed hence teachers and other stakeholders need to change if the needs of the junior high school students are to be attained. Some societal changes include an increase in family breakups, working parents, and inn ovations in technology. The complexity of mathematical content in the curriculum has also changed. There is a strong relationship between school achievement and the quality of life. Motivation to learn mathematics can either be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation is the desire of students to engage in learning activities which bring joy and self-confidence to them. This motivation focuses on the learning goals such as mastery of mathematical concepts.

Executive Leadership Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Executive Leadership - Dissertation Example The researcher is effective at team leadership and his team is performing based on Tuckman’s model. His conflict resolution style is collaborative and his spiritual leadership follows Fry’s causal model characterized as high in calling and membership, and correspondingly high in commitment and productivity. The researcher exhibited transactional leadership. The main goal of this researcher is to rev-up his skills and experiences towards transformational leadership, to facilitate his ultimate target of being a transformational coach. The leadership development plan was formulated in the light of the goals and desired outcomes set by this researcher. Table of Contents 1.0. Executive Summary 1 Table of Contents 2 2.0. Introduction 3 3.0. Reflective Self Assessment 4 3.1. Qualities of Leadership 4 3.2. Leadership Skills 5 3.3. Leadership Traits 11 3.4. Leadership Styles 12 3.5. Leader-led Relations 14 3.6. Organizational Politics and Power 14 3.7. Developing Leadership in O thers 15 3.8. Emotional Intelligence 15 3.9. Team Leadership 16 3.10. Conflict Resolution 18 3.11. Charismatic or Transformational Leadership 19 3.12. Spiritual Leadership 20 4.0. Leadership Development Plan 21 5.0. Bibliography 27 Leadership Style and Qualities Questionnaire (2011), viewed 14 April, 2011, http://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/mmdi/questionnaire/ 28 Mental Muscle Diagram Indicator [MMDI] (2011), Free online report: Christy Lewis, viewed 14 April, 2011, http://www.teamtechnology.co.uk/report/online/ 28 6.0. Appendices 29 6.1. Leadership Style and Qualities Questionnaire and Results 29 6.2. 360-Degree Feedback Comparative Results for 2008 to 2011 30 6.3. Interpretation table for the strength of relationship coefficients 32 6.4. Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EIQ): Snapshot Report Screenshot 33 6.5. Output of Statistical Tests 34 6.6. Leadership Style Questionnaire (Essex, 2011) 40 6.7. Leadership Traits Questionnaire 42 6.8. Team Leadership Questionnaire 43 6.9. Conflict Resolution Questionnaire 47 6.10. Transformational Leadership Questionnaire 50 6.11. Spiritual Leadership Questionnaire 52 6.12. Methodology 54 2.0. Introduction â€Å"Leadership is the art of mobilizing others to want to struggle for shared aspirations† (Kouzes & Posner, as cited in Thomas, 2006 p.158). The aforementioned definition of leadership demonstrates this researcher’s simple and all-encompassing vision as a business leader: â€Å"working with people towards our common targets which define our uncommon zeal to innovate and excel†. Hence, this researcher’s personal mission is to â€Å"hone my skills and expertise in order to mature from being a transformational leader to a transformational coach†. This paper is a self-reflection of how this mission can be animated to sustain the aforestated vision. Accordingly, the succeeding paragraphs shall acquaint the reader on the person behind the vision. This researcher is a strategic leader with ove r 15 years of meaningful experience at the management level. The

Science and Scientific Change Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Science and Scientific Change - Essay Example I regard Kuhn’s contribution to the field as one of the most important, not because I think he’s correct, but because it radically changed the way people think about the nature and purpose of science. Before Kuhn, philosophers generally regarded science as a rational and logical enterprise, with strict standards that guaranteed objectivity. What Kuhn shows, in his The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1970), is that science, as well as scientific change, is not as rational as we think. Scientists themselves are guided not by a set of objective principles, but by their personal interests and values as much as anything else. Many philosophers and scientists have criticized Kuhn for portraying scientific change as an irrational process, one of them being Imre Lakatos. In this paper, I shall focus on the debate between Kuhn and Popper, as emphasized by Lakatos in his Falsification and The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes. I shall divide this paper into four main parts: the first part will discuss Popper’s views on science and scientific change. Part two will be devoted to Thomas Kuhn’s analysis of the irrationality of science and paradigm shifts. The third part will synthesize the Popperian and Kuhnian debate. Here I will introduce Lakatos’ critique against Kuhn. Finally, I shall end my paper with my conclusion regarding the said issue at hand. Karl Popper What is the main difference between scientific theories and non-scientific theories? This is often referred to as the demarcation problem, which asks, what criterion can we use to distinguish scientific claims from non-scientific claims? What demarcates science from non-science? This is Karl Popper’s most renowned contribution. Yet what solution did Popper offer to his said problem? Popper’s solution to the demarcation problem is really quite simple. He says that what distinguishes scientific claims from non-scientific ones is its falsifiability. Thus, a hypothesis is scientific if and only if there is some way in which it can be falsified by means of some experiment. If we cannot construct an experiment, which can potentially falsify a hypothesis, then the hypothesis, even if meaningful, is really not scientific. In line with these two theories that are foundational to Popper’s philosophy, it is clear that Popper views science as a rational enterpri se, where theory-change is characterized by scientific progress. According to Popper, science changes through a two-step cycle. Stage one is conjecture, and the second stage is attempted refutation. Under the stage of conjecture, a theory is proposed as an attempt to solve the problem at hand. The theory is then put to test by attempted refutations. Attempted refutation occurs when â€Å"the hypothesis is subjected to critical testing, in an attempts to show that it is false† (Godfrey-Smith 61). Moreover, Popper notes that after the hypothesis is refuted, the process repeats again starting from a new conjecture, and so on and so forth. If the theory is corroborated, then it is temporarily accepted as un-refuted, but not justified. What is important to take note of here is that as the process

Alternative energy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Alternative energy - Research Paper Example solution to the most critical problems that the world has today, especially in reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which deteriorates global warming (International Energy Agency, "Solar Energy Perspectives"). Solar energy is, by far, the most experienced form of energy due to its accessibility, and the ease of converting solar energy to electricity. Many solar energy conversion technologies present sustainable and promising potentials in providing renewable energy that does not only reduces the cost of electricity but could also deliver effective mitigating solutions to the environmental problems we have today. The International Energy Agency expresses its confidence over the positive impacts that solar energies could bring to the world. The agency states that the creation of low-cost, unlimited and untainted solar energy technologies will have "huge longer-term benefits" (International Energy Agency, "Solar Energy Perspectives"). The energy agency adds that the stable generation of solar power through the use of solar energy conversion technologies will ensure energy security in many countries; and will cut dependence on power plants that use radioactive materials, which are potentially pernicious to human health. It will also lower down the energy cost, improve sustainability, will help reduce pollution, and will lessen the effects of climate change. Therefore, the agency stresses that since this innovative approach requires substantial amount of financial investments, a careful planning must be employed for an efficient expenditure of financial resources (International Energy Agency, "S olar Energy Perspectives"). Normally, the Earth obtains a sizeable load of radiation from the sun. On average, our planet takes at least 174 pent watts of solar energy (Smil 240). Of this, 70 percent is absorbed by the Earth by the clouds, oceans, and ground forms including the mountains and the plains among others. The sun’s rays could either be

One Man Band Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 7

One Man Band - Movie Review Example The indecision of the girl is part of her innocent character. This innocence is again depicted by the competing characters using the tempo of the music, and not quality to attract her attention. They also make use of dance steps to attract her to them. Her indecision leads to the loss of the coin. From the time of the loss of the coin, the innocent expression disappears. In its place, it appears a face of determinedness. She has realized that these two characters stopped her from putting the coin in the fountain. This removes the indecision. There is a firmness seen. She firmly demands compensation for her loss. Bass and Treble are now at a disadvantage. They are forced to give her the violin she demands. Her initial attempts at playing the violin are poor. This depicts her learning process. She tunes the violin and plays beautiful music. Bass and Treble are taken aback. Her playing so well causes a passerby to give her a bag of gold coins. Bass and Treble have not realized that she is smarter now from the experience she has gained. She has learned the value of money. She has also learned how to make money. There is a pleasant yet competent look on her face now. Bass and Treble cannot try to take advantage of her anymore. Her experience makes her overcome their overtures to her. She is able to overcome them, even though they combine forces instead of being in competition. Thus her experience has made her stronger. She tosses the two coins into the fountain. Bass and Treble can only look on and are not able to do anything about it. Thus through the experience, she has gained in her growing up, she is able to outsmart the two men, who tried to take advantage of her innocence, and turn h er away from putting a coin in the fountain (1)

Epistemology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Epistemology - Essay Example More often than not, when people think about acquisition of knowledge that they possess, their attention is drawn to school or college as the source of that knowledge. However, these are not the only existing ways of acquiring knowledge. For example, the process or onset of acquisition of knowledge is way before school when one is a baby or a toddler. When a baby cries, he gets the attention of the parents or caregivers who seek out what the problem is, and a toddler touching something hot immediately feels the pain. Deviant behaviors exhibited by children are met with punishment while good deeds and manners call for praise and reward. All these examples form parts of the knowledge equation despite the fact that the toddler or the child might not be aware of what is happening in his or her life. As the children grow up, there is more knowledge being acquired as they later learn how to dress themselves, tie their shoes, to talk and read. They also acquire knowledge about social aspect s of life like family life and relationships. In general, everything and all spheres of life including work life is knowledge (Cooper, 1999; Feldman, 2003). Individuals who are interested in acquiring knowledge about certain aspects or subjects can do so through schooling or through acquaintance. The concept of individual epistemology as they are developed and enacted in professional paid work can be elaborated by looking beyond the present ideas of epistemological beliefs (Hofer & Printrich, 1997), and positioning individual epistemologies as being dynamic, deliberate, and derived in individual-specific means through a unique set of socially-derived experiences that are a consequent of a person’s life history or ontogeny. Considering their dynamic and constitutive nature, it is imperative to centrally place these epistemologies in the dual processes of individual development and reshaping of socially derived norms. An illustration of these propositions can be made by drawing upon situations in which a worker, in this case, a GameStop manager, learns through paid work and how the work is remade, in conditions of greater and lesser close social guidance. In essence, personal epistemologies are considered as the primary basis for instigating, monitoring, and evaluating the process and outcome of these enactments. Therefore, it is important to elaborate individual epistemologies in order to understand how people engage in and learn through paid work and their reshaping and alteration of their work activities in certain circumstances and at certain instances. Studies of acquiring socially derived knowledge have often taken place in situations that provide strong direct social guidance and mostly through appraisal of dyads for example expert-novice. Therefore, current understanding about learning through work situations is largely premised on richly social affordances, including the availability of more informed social partners An Account of individual epist emology In my profession, in regard to outside support, trust is the most important factor when making a judgment of the support being offered as valued. Therefore, a lot significant consideration is put on my part on the basis of on which the support is provided. Furthermore, the judgments on the value of the different kinds

Achievement Motivation Essay Example for Free

Achievement Motivation Essay The cognitive theories stress that need for cognitive stimulus as a way of motivating the learners to acquire new knowledge (Weiner, 1990). Thus whenever learners are faced with new tasks or challenges, they seek a solution based on their past knowledge and skills. This view corroborated Jean Piaget’s past works on how institutions adapt and plan to execute tasks. Piaget, in his various studies held that people confronted with a gap between fresh knowledge and existing knowledge of belief experience a psychological disequilibrium, which prompts them to solve so that they are back to a state of equilibrium (Weiner, 1990).   Another psychologist, Jerome Brunner, supported Piaget’s cognitive theory and suggests that learners should be prompt if identifying such knowledge gaps so that they are closed. However, studies show that the cognitive theory by Piaget is complex in implementations because learners experience different disequilibrium every time and synchrony to fill the gaps is a great challenge (Weiner, 1990). Behavioural Theories The behavioural theories were first studied by B.F. Skinner. This theory stresses the reinforcement of specific behaviour in order for extrinsic rewards achievement. The behavioural theories aid the learning process and understanding of why learners respond positively to some subject in class. This theory therefore offers the first explanation to the subject specialization trends such as languages and mathematics. However, social theorist like Bandura differ with B.F. Skinner and stressed the effects of learners need to be identified with specific subjects such as languages and mathematics. This led to the learners copying other people who have achieved past successes in the same field (Weiner, 1990). Later studies revealed that too much extrinsic motivation such as rewards is counter productive at a later stage and become a barrier to knowledge acquisition. This trend leads to over reliance on the tutor and fails to achieve the positive nature of intrinsic motivations. Therefore, tutors should apply extrinsic rewards only when appropriate as a strategy of maximizing its effects on the learner (Weiner, 1990). The humanistic Theories Abraham Maslow is regarded as the father of humanistic theories of achievement motivation. Maslow posited that people’s needs follows natural needs as ranked in a hierarchical order or importance (Weiner, 1990).   Maslow outlined a five-stage pyramid level of needs from the bottom to the apex as follows: physiological needs; safety needs; need to belong; self-esteem; and self-actualization needs. The apex of the pyramid has the self-actualizations and defines the person’s needs to operate under their full capability and capacity. This need is followed by the esteem needs that define the people’s self-projections and need to be recognized. The next level of needs is the belonging. This applies to the people wanting to be associated by peers. The next level of needs is the safety of individuals derived from the environment security. The bottom of the pyramid has the physiological needs, defined by access to food, shelter and drinks among others (Weiner, 1990). Maslow’s needs hierarchy are important for identification of cognitive needs that outline when individuals are satisfied from the basic levels. Maslow’s needs hierarchy will only be effective when people are free to probe the environment, acquire knowledge, show equitable resource distributions, are transparent and maintain order (Weiner, 1990). The problem with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is the inability of the tutor to determine the exiting level of the learners’ satisfaction. Similarly, if the tutor is aware, they may not provide the need to the learners. Either way, the tutors have the role of modifying the learning environment to suit the surrounding learners’ needs (Weiner, 1990). Achievement motivation theory John W. Atkinson and David McClelland advanced this theory. This theory holds that people seek to achieve the highest state of aspirations. Therefore, people success aspirations are defined with failure avoidance in mind. These needs are achieved whenever an individual is successful. Thus, successful learners will claim a needs achievement depending on the subject specialization and gender as highlighted in sections of this paper. On this gender issues some studies have shown that females in patriarchal societies avoid success to protect their relationships (Weiner, 1990).   Weiner (1990) did further studies in the area odd achievement motivation. These findings considered factors of learners’ failure to achieve success whereby those who fail blame inability and bad luck. Those who succeed justify low efforts by those who failed and cite ability to succeed. The problem with the achievement theory is ability to measure and evaluate the evaluate the heights of aspirations, specify needs, identify failure as well as varying achievement behaviour (Weiner, 1990). Various works on achievement motivation theories were completed and peer reviewed over the years and most of the findings fall under learning theories and cognition theories as applied under the learners’ context (Dovona-Ope, 2008, p. 25). An adult’s achievement motivation draws its success from historical childhood period where aspirations and self-actualization are set. Therefore, when people grow up in life, they are directed by goals of achievement, which clarify purpose and objectives of achieving academic targets and others (Anderman, et al, 2004, p. 1-26). Further student achievement motivation in any academic program is to accomplish their meet the academic tasks criteria as a contemporary theory. Thus, various academic goals will be outlined to the students’ specific behaviour, intellectual capabilities and level of engagement (Ames, 1992). Student who show high level of self efficacy in special areas of learning are likely to achieve more because of the support they get from their peers, guardians, intellectual maturity and emotional preparedness (Dovona-Ope, 2008, p. 25). Contemporary perspectives on achievement motivation and how they are utilized today According to Dovona-Ope, (2008, p. 26), there are at least four contemporary factors that need to be considered when one is seeking to understand achievement motivations in a scholarly area like PhD. First, one needs to avoid the deceptions that these goals are achievable with an individualistic attitude. In the contract, collectivism with other students pursing similar goals is very important as process mistakes will be corrected effectively. This contemporary theory relies on experience that collective academic pursuit makes problem solving process and goals achievement easier (Dovona-Ope, 2008, p.26). Second, achievement motivation theories should steer of attitudes and belief that people will not succeed. This kind of complacency creates a barrier to achievements in academic process. (Dovona-Ope, 2008, p. 26). It is recommended that pursuant of the goals stick to their original plans and direction despite the many challenges abound. This process is achievable from intrinsic motivations where the goal setter listens to their inner voice that the successful completion of their career will lead to satisfaction (Wolters, 2004, p. 236-250). The earlier mentioned collective association in scholarly tasks would mitigate the fear of lack of achievement of academic goals. Studies show that collective association can overcome difficult academic times because the other member will advance positive ideas (Dovona-Ope, 2008, p. 26). Kahlefeldt (2004) agrees with this position and goes ahead to note that people become what they believe whether in success or failure. The third contemporary theory of achievement motivation is persistence (Dovona-Ope, 2008, p. 26). Persistence is one way to secure achievements learning needs because the goal pursuant focuses irrespective of the inner void to give in.   This has implications that people must believe in their capabilities, fortified by self-efficacy in PHD course as an example. Persistence also implies that the learners are able to cope with any diversionary factors along the way (Dovona-Ope, 2008, p. 28). The fourth contemporary theory on achievement motivation is premature declaration of total achievement and success. This state leads to lack of attention to details and barriers to important feedback on the process (Dovona-Ope, 2008, p. 29). Contemporary learning theories suggest that scholars should pay attention to feedback loops and mechanisms because they stand to learn more from their mistakes than from their successes. Schloss, (2001, p.8) supports this view and highlights the importance of some mistakes in a learning process in order to reinforce the achievements when issues are clarified. Other contemporary theories of achievement motivation are been built on place based education environment (Duffin, 2005). This theory suggests that people are motivated to achieve knowledge based on the natural environment and cultural perceptions. Therefore, collective culture will achieve more if the learners are in teams or groups when learning tasks are set. Similarly, the learning tasks will be achieved more when the tasks are learner centred than tutor centred (Athman Monroe, 2004, p. 9-25). In a study to determine the impact of place based education of on achievement motivation in the US, ten different reviews were carried out in more than 16 states with a framework of 265 academic institutions. This study was done over 7 year’s period from 1998. The results showed that this program caused change in the learning institutions culture, improved learners’ engagement and aroused curiosity, increased the learning achievements and prepared new grounds for future teacher practices (Duffin, 2005). Further studies showed that the learners who were exposed to more environmental stimulus achieved more that their counterparts. This particular finding stressed that the school going motivation process alone had over 10% influences in the learners’ achievements. Among the historical theorist in achievement motivation was Atkinson in 1964, who carried out a study to compare learners with high achievement motivation and phobia for failure vis-à  -vis learners with high achievement motivation and less failure phobia. This study established four dimensions, the success driven learners, the achievers, the failure phobic, failure embraces. Further studies by Covington Omelich (1991), established that Atkinson’s theory were appropriate and went further to state that females tend to conform to high achievement motivation levels and failure avoidance as compared to males especially in language and mathematics. Studies also show that males tend to achieve more motivation than female counterparts in mathematics do than in languages as a masculine cultural orientation vis-à  -vis a feminine culture orientation. Contemporary theories are applied today in various more ways. According to McGonagall, (2007, p. 1-5), contemporary theories are used to tackle the learners challenges to the tutor following their life long experiences in the academic processes. Thus, a tutor may ask learners to interpret a given scenario rather that getting cues from the tutor especially in humanities. In the area of social sciences, contemporary theories are used to unfreeze the elements of common sense amongst the learners. These two elaborations have implications that contemporary theories are used today for awareness of past assumptions that put barriers to the learning process. Therefore, the tutor or trainer assumes a new responsibility of initiating learning change process so that the learners are the centre and key actors (McGonagall, 2007, p. 1). Other areas where contemporary theories are applied are in transformation learning process. In this case, the learners who are now at the centre of the process become assimilated to the achievement motivations. Once learners have successfully been assimilated, there will be lesser resistance to new ideas and minimize knowledge conflicts. Contemporary theories eliminate learning content disorientation then further enhance achievement motivation. This strategy enables learners to identify new knowledge when they face tasks (McGonagall, 2007, p. 2). Contemporary transformation theories are used today to stimulate learners’ self-reflection and efficacy. This is a very critical step because it enables the learners to form peer groups for ideas exchange as they open themselves to criticism. Thereafter the tutor or trainer will be able to comprehend the learners’ knowledge background and the best approaches to measure and evaluate them (McGonagall, 2007, p. 2). The tutors and trainers to are using contemporary theories today to activate the learners’ limitations to a new knowledge beginning by learners’ surveys. The outcomes of such surveys are important for critical reflection of the learners. Later, tutors and trainers can use these outcomes to stimulate critical discourse where learners argue their points of view at peer level (McGonagall, 2007, p. 3). Contemporary transformation theories are used today to balance between learners workload so that they neither resist nor loose hope of their achievement motivations. New ideas management that fosters transparency of goals (McGonagall, 2007, p. 4) achieves this process. Evaluation of Memory Cognitive processes In a study by Koriat, et al. (2004, p. 643-656), memory is an important aspect of cognition because as applied in judgement in a learning process. Memory is the ability to cue knowledge and experience to respond to a stimulus influence (Koriat Bjork , 2005, p. 187-194). Therefore memory during learning is a predictor of competence of illustration of a given content or perspective. Differences in memory especially during an examination process arise due to delays, cue models, illusions or judgement perspectives. All these factors affect achievement motivation of the learners as they show how accurate they will be able to retain impacted knowledge in any learning environment (Koriat, et al. 2004, p. 643-656). Memory subject has various sub processes applicable in achievement motivation: Sensory Memory sub process According to a study by Bigand, et al, (2003, p. 159-171), the sensory memory aids in brief retention of the raw information stimuli as the person decided whether to act or store the message. Sensory memory is often very short and is perceived from the five senses of the body. When sensory memory stimulus is well structured, they can aid the cognitive memory process by enhancing retention of knowledge and skills. Sensory memory articulation is by visuals such as pictures and practical tasks (Yousoof, Sapiyan Kamaluddin, 2006, p. 259-260) In practice, sensory memory prioritizes knowledge during a learning process, hence contribute to achievement motivation. Studies show that sensory memory act without synaptic stimulus because of short feedback system. Tutors normally use sensory memory to model tools and loops for reinforcing the learners’ theoretical concepts. In real practice, sensory memory has a metaphorical symbol in learning to bridge the gap between abstract and real factors or knowledge achievement motivation (Yousoof, Sapiyan Kamaluddin, 2006, p. 259-260).   Working memory sub process Following a research by Juff (2004, p. 199-226), working memory is useful in aptitude tests to show how people connect phonological loops, grammar and lexis especially when one is learning a second language. Working memory also defines how one uses vocabulary when speaking, writing, behaving, frequency of use of words, styles of grammar and the word connections (Juff, 2004, p. 199-226). In terms of Achievement motivation, working memory applies in proficiency tests, reading tests, vocabulary breadth and in sentence constructions. Further, working memory is useful in aptitude tests and examination of language proficiency attainment (Juff, 2005, p. 121-151). In real practice, working memory also show how fast one is able to communicate in a given language or subject of specialization, that is, ability to distinguish one subject from the other by achievement motivation (Juff, 2004, p. 199-226). Long-term memory sub process According to a study by Wan (2007), long-term memory is the ability to retrieve information store after a long period of from a conservational and operational point of view. Long-term memory depends on the information classification therefore this is a predictor of how the information will be presented on stimulus (Wan, 2007). If information is old, it will not be retained and this explains how learners loose information in the longer learning period. Studies carried out to analyse long-term memory relation to cognitive process showed that the period of follow up after knowledge was impacted is very important for longer-term retention. Additionally long-term memory improves with regular rehearsal (Nuthall, 2000). In real practice, this has implications that academic contents need regular tests in order to improve the memory by the learners and their achievement motivation. Recognition sub process A study to establish existing differences in recognition (Ray Reingold, 2003, p. 131-137) showed that mismatches starts at the information coding stage and later at the encoding stage. Further, knowledge recognition depended on the sequence of internalization and speed of the process. Therefore, learners with better recognition simply reflected those who could quickly match the stimulus with the internalized knowledge codes. This study also showed that a delay in probing the store knowledge might case a lapse in recognition of certain information. In real practice, the recognition factor has implications that learning tasks need regular performance and practice other than the normal theory process of achievement motivation (Ray Reingold, 2003, p. 131-137). Recall sub process A study by Cowan et al. (2005, p. 67-73), to establish how immediate recall is affected by speed of the brain process, showed that speed was not a major issue on the accuracy of the knowledge recall. This study confirmed that knowledge presentation speed affected recall, as is the case when practical learning experiments are executed under times sessions rather than under leisure sessions. Additional factors that affected recall are the speed and frequency of rehearsal. As far as the recall is either verbal or writer form, recitation is attributed to higher recalls in verbal presentations (Cowan et al., 2005, p. 67-73). Further, this study concluded that capacity of knowledge, other than speed might also impact on the recall process, so that dense scope of information may take longer to recall. This study was very cautious on the speed variable because a set of manipulations gave different outcomes as far as recall is concerned. Finally, this study established that recall of difficult tasks may sometimes be easier that for easy tasks because the learner keep putting a lot of effort in trying to memorize and recall the knowledge. Therefore, it is common to see such a learner experience tip of the tongue phenomenon when trying to recall a simpler task (Cowan et al., 2005, p. 67-73). Recall process has achievement motivation implications that lexical learning process will be either slow or fast depending of the modes of tests as either rehearsed or random. Similarly, this study as implications that speed of learning can moderately affect recall, therefore learning process and curriculum development should bear capacity and duration in mind (Cowan et al., 2005, p. 67-73). In real practice, the variance in recall accuracy has implications that learners should be taught in phases when tasks are complex rather than in bloc strategies so that above average recall is achievement and motivated. Elaboration sub process According to a study by Reigeluth (1992, p. 80-86), on the elaboration theory, showed that learning contents need to be arranged in a hierarchical order of complexity to increased retention effects. The elaboration theory insinuates that simpler tasks should precede complex tasks in a learning process in order for the learners’ achievement motivation to stay alive. This elaboration theory has implications that the learners should always be reminded of previous lessons so that they can build on the next level of knowledge. This strategy will enable the learner to gain meaning of the following knowledge and skills internalization (English Reigeluth, 1996, p. 23-42). The elaboration process calls for various factors in order to be successful in a learning process; clarity of sequence; set induction sequence; conclusions; synthesis; ideas; recall strategies; and finally, the learners management (Reigeluth, 1992, p. 80-86). The elaboration theory is relevant in the way the tutor will present the current lesson as a continuation from the previous lesson. The elaboration theory also needs specific objectives, ideas and concepts to be broken down step by step so that the learner can optimize recall of the skills and knowledge (English Reigeluth, 1996, p. 23-42). The elaboration theory is relevant in today’s learning process because the tutor that has identified the fast and slow learners can put in extra efforts to improve the performance of the slow learners. In real practice, the elaboration theory also emphasizes that practical lessons should be included in the lesson planning to reinforce the theoretical learning process and achievement motivation. This can be achieved practically by workshops, laboratory and field visits (Reigeluth, 1992, p. 80-86). Rehearsal sub process According to a study by Dosher and Ma (1998, p. 316-335), longer words tend to slow in recall as compared to shorter words. Therefore, words like she; to; buy; put; me; are easier to recall than words like tomorrow; exaggerated; purchase; masquerade; e.t.c. The purpose of rehearsal is to improve the recall rate of such words in order for the length to shorten from a psychological point of view (Parlie, Singh, Vasudevan, 2006, p. 80 88). Rehearsal will suppress the phonological lengths and ease the articulation of the longer words just like the case of the shorter words. Once this is achieved, the learner will be able to give a continuous speech with accurate pronunciations (Dosher and Ma (1998, p. 316-335). In real practice, the relevance of the rehearsal process is in the patients with speech problems especially those who incapacitated muscular control of language. Rehearsal will improve the overall speech gaps and controls. Rehearsal can act as maintenance of phonological control process in achievement motivation (Baddeley, 2000, p. 544-549). Sub process Applications As learners transform from one level of academic achievement to the next, say from masters to PhD, they recognize the criticism that required them to achieve higher that the previous levels (Shin, Daly Vera, 2007). This pressure may cause some degree of depression, self-esteem complexes, overload and feeling of quitting. This has implications that achievement motivation and the career level engagements are inseparable from memory sub process. Some factors like ethnicity of the learner, verses tutor or supervisor, degree of peer support (Hanushek, et al 2003, p. 527- 544), and the learning norms can also impact of the memory achievement motivation (Shin, Daly Vera, 2007, p. 379- 388). A critical literature review established a research pattern that focuses on memory achievement motivation over the last two decades. Studies in the area of memory attribution or motivation theories have led to 4 categories of findings. First, Tutors should avoid aiding learners using elaborations unnecessarily when the tasks are simple because slow and low achieving learners regard this as a hint due to their low capabilities and learning efficacy (Graham Baker, 1990, p. 7-14); (Schunk, 1990). Second, learners’ earlier sign of efficacy for achievements via strategies like rehearsals should propel them to high performance so that they take charge of their individual lives (Schunk, 1990). Third, learners that regulate their learning achievements are in line with their self-efficacy and reality of personal capabilities to achieve high outcome in the learning environment and have recognition that the process is worth its course (Schunk, 1990). This is true because the learners’ metacognitive plans, evaluation and realignments show their ability to control the input in the learning tasks (Graham Baker, 1990, p. 7-14). Fourth, learners’ initial academic exposure such as master degree will play a key part in the next level academic achievement such as PhD because they have better recall of   previous knowledge and skills (Graham Baker, 1990, p. 7-14); (Schunk, 1990). Studies in the area of memory achievement have also lead to 4 main categories of findings. First, learners are motivated when they believe that tutors are concerned about their outcomes as far as long-term memory is concerned (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990). Thus tutors that care show interactions with the learners and this bridges the gaps between their learning expectations and the knowledge status (Wenzel, 1997). Similarly, tutors that show concern for the learners’ progress complete the feedback loop in a positive manner (Ryan Pintrich, 1997). Second, learners will rarely seek assistance when they know that their memory self-efficacy will be in question; when their cognitive prowess is down; and when they see very little gains from the help process. In the contrary, proactive learners who seek to boost their working memory will seek tutors guidance appropriately (Ryan Pintrich, 1997). Third, highly motivated learners that are utilizing the learning opportunities effectively are likely to be high sensory memory achievers (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990 p. 41-49). Various learning strategies will yield varied outcomes based on the learners’ perception of the age of the learning tools and materials. This has implications that tutors should stress on domains of new learning tools every time they make new changes from the weaknesses of the previous memory learning tools (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990 p. 41-49). Fourth, learners are motivated to cheat when their learning institution stresses on performance and rote memory skills; when they perceive that cheating is okay; when the tutors stress extrinsic outcomes with poor elaboration; when the learners are stressed up on their academic tasks and cannot recall knowledge (Anderman et al, 1998). The various psychologist and theorists base these critical views on actual observations.   Thus, learners that are perpetually cheating in exams take motivation from high administration demands for success and achievement especially in mathematics and languages (Anderman et al, 1998). Other learners who transfer to new institutions and were not held more accountable for achievements in the previous institution, hence cheating may be rampant. Learners not held responsible tend to relax the long-term memory achievement priorities and failure may not be an option. Learners that have high self-efficacy will tend to regulate their study times so that they have a tenable strategy for achievement and technique for success (Anderman et al, 1998). Finally, learner with high self-efficacy will shun tutor help as which contradicts the earlier observation that those with low efficacy and achievement also shun help. Therefore, this critical analysis will be useful in training tutors to manage a diverse learning environment and people (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990 p. 41-49). Various cognitive sub processes can also impact on memory achievement motivation. The expectancy theory by Atkinson was tested for achievement motivation trajectories especially in mathematics and languages across the gender divide. The tests showed that language acquisition and skills motivations were insignificant and depended on the achievement motivation. However, females tend to acquire more achievement motivation in languages than males from 10 years onwards (Penner, 2003, p. 650-655). Characteristics of cognition and learning and application context within learners’ specialization in summarizing the relationship between training and education in the context of cognition. There are driving factors that summarize the relationship between training and education in the context of cognition. Learners need to understand the contents and goals so that they can add value to their lives. This has implications that the training or tutorial process must be well defined for maximum achievement motivation. Learners need to take active role in the training or tutorial process so that they acquire the latest knowledge and skills. This has implications that the learners must be responsible in the whole process of achievement motivation (Shunk, 1990). Learners need to experience the ultimate success after each training or tutorial. This has implications that the training or tutorial process must be realistic and the feedback loop must be shortened and effective. Learners need to receive rewards for every level of achievement whether intrinsic or extrinsic. This has implications that the learning process must be safe and prepared for this achievement motivation reward delivery. Learners need to ample time to rehearse, recall, elaborate, recognize and work through the course contents. This has implications that the training or tutorial contents must be relevant and objective for the learners future career and achievement motivation. Finally, learners need to evaluate their working memory by themselves regularly. This has implications that peer and social cognitive characteristics need stimulation earlier in the course contents to facilitate self-evaluations for achievement motivation process (Shunk, 1990). There are various characteristics of cognition and learning that can be applied within the learners’ context and area of specialization to sum up the training needs and the academic context of cognition. These include the learner self control under achievement motivation; the flexibility during the learning process; internalizations of the learning contents; persistence of the leaner ; acceptability to accomplish complex tasks; phobia of learning; success inclinations and tendencies; learning independence; willingness to learn; ability to set achievable goals; orientation to the academic level; learners competitiveness and aggression; learners mastery, dominance or area or specialization; learning content flow; learners ability to compensate for content gaps; and learners pride in content achievement motivation ( Byrne, et al, 2004, p. 203-217). When it comes to these attributes ability to be mapped to predict the training needs and education for cognition, there are no major studies that have been accomplished. What is certain is that many countries are using these factors of personalities   apply these characteristics in simulations so that they can be used in interviewing workers for respective jobs as a predictor of their success at jobs (Fleenor, McCauley Brutus, 1996, p. 486 -506). The relationship between training and education in cognition should be developed from the job area that the current learner has in mind; outline the achievement goals in the training area; specify the degree of achievement proficiency; ability to internalizes the contents of the training so that the overall job performance is boosted. Since the learners are majors in the subjects, the tutor need to adopt their learning style so that the locus of control can be directed to enable the learners take responsibility in the training process to maximize achievement motivation. This approach will also ensure that the learners exploit any available opportunities to enable them make the best decisions. This process will best be accomplished by the learners self evaluation within the study context irrespective of their individual characteristics.   There are additional characteristics of cognition and learning applications that must be applied to the learners’ area of specialization for optimum achievement motivation. First, cognition and learning need an enabling environment so that the learners are free to interact and internalized the contents (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990, p. 41-49). Second, cognition and learning applications should evaluate the learners existing knowledge ahead of outlining new knowledge to be impacted (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990, p. 41-49). Third, cognition and learning applications need to be realistic and sensibly tied to the objectives with clarity on the performance benchmarks (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990, p. 41-49). Fourth, cognition and learning applications should devote appropriate timeframe so that the skills are internalized (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990, p. 41-49).   Fifth, cognition and learning applications should stress content validity so that the learners can make good use of their time (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990, p. 41-49). Sixth, cognition and learning applications should specify the tasks in a priority manner so that learners can optimize the knowledge and skills in order or priority (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990, p. 41-49). Seventh, cognition and learning applications should delegate tasks based on the complexity and learners capabilities. Finally, cognition and learning applications should seek constant feedback by measurement and evaluation (Pokay Blumenfeld, 1990, p. 41-49). Conclusion: Social and personal influences on cognition and how these influences the learner’s specialization This paper has evaluated the role of achievement motivation on cognition and learning along the various characteristics of the learners’ contexts. There are variances in the achievement motivations based on the learners’ specialization such as mathematics or languages. This study did not find a specific pattern to suggest that achievement motivation is gender biases passà ©, but show that gender characteristics have some level of influence on achievement motivation process and outcome. As a social factor, this study established that achievement motivation can be effected through peer learners association, tutors tools and styles of engaging the students and quality time spent between the tutor and the learner. As a personal factor, this study also established that achievement motivation can be effected today by the study based settings or environment in addition to the individual learners efforts. This study highlighted cognitive, behavioral, humanistic and achievement motivational theories as the main historical foundations for achievement motivation (Weiner, 1990). Further individual motivational characteristics were found to predict the learners’ achievement motivation today. Specifically factors that are closer to the learners such as the classroom environment, learning tools, styles and tutors will vary the achievement motivation. These social and personal influences can be applied in a linear style to influence the learners’ specialization (Singer Willet, 2003). From a gender perspective this study shows that the achievement motivation progress of males can be more predictable than of females in the language instructions today. This has implications that males who specialize in languages may need more contact hours with the tutor than their female counterparts.   As a summary of social and personal influence on cognition and achievement motivation, this study established that various learner memory characteristics such as rehearsal, elaboration, recall, recognition, long-term memory, working memory and sensory memory among other factors, contribute separately or in tandem to overall achievement motivation today. Therefore, for an achievement motivations impact on the social and personal influence on cognition to be realized, this study is of the opinion that controlling achievement motivation using contemporary theories should be prioritized and validated with learning and cognitive theories. In order to influence the learners specialization positively today, the learner must develop self efficacy and minimize hopelessness by living to high achievement motivation expectations (Shunk, 1990, p. 3-6). Therefore learners must ensure they are able to rehearse contents, following the tutors best practices and elaborations. Learners must recognize the need for knowledge and skills recall as a success factor in their future life career. Learners with long term memory will find less need for retraining or tutorial refreshment with additional sensory memory tools. Memory can be enhances in an academic program by tests of the skills achievements (Luo Craik, 2008). This study reveals that memory can be enhanced from training approaches under a controlled learning process. Generally, memory supports achievement motivation under strategic modification and when it is learner centred. Thus, prospective memory is good for long-term memory achievement. Learners who cannot recall knowledge and engage in cheating are engaging in false memory presentation (Luo Craik, 2008).

Strain Theory by Robert Merton | An Analysis

Strain Theory by Robert Merton | An Analysis In criminology, the strain theory describes social structures inside society that may support people to carry out crime. Following the work of Emile Durkheim, Strain Theories have been supported by Robert King Merton, Albert K. Cohen, Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin, Robert Agnew, and Steven Messner and Richard Rosenfeld. Strain may be either: Structural: this applies to the procedures at the community level which break down and impact how one judges their requirements, i.e. if specific social controls are insufficient or there is little regulation, this may alter the individuals outlook as to methods and prospects; or Individual: This term represents the hostility and barriers faced by persons as they look for ways to fulfill their needs or desires, i.e. if the norms of a society become important to a person, in fact accomplishing them may become more significant than the methods. The History of Strain Theory Strain theory was created from the work of Durkheim and Merton and derived from the theory of anomie. Durkheim concentrated on the reduction of societal control and the strain that was caused at the individual level, and Merton analyzed the cultural connection that is present between the individual and the standards of society. Anomie can be split into two separate levels. The first of these levels is the macro side of anomie, which is apparent in the capacity of society to establish restrictions on societal norms and goals, and ultimately control an individuals conduct. The micro side of anomie, also called as strain theory, is focused on the motives underlying the bigger probability of deviance that accumulates from the breakdown of society. In accordance with this micro side of anomie, the reduction in societal controls generates more desire to perform deviant actions (Agnew Passas, 1997:2-3). Agnew and Passas (1997) dealt with the similarities between the macro level of anomie and control theory; however, they claimed that the micro level theory of strain should be judged in a distinct way different from the control theory. Agnew (1992:48) also contrasted and compared strain theory to control theory and social learning theory. The theories vary in the kind of social relationships that they emphasize and the motivations on which they are established. The control theory hinges on the notion that the breakdown of society frees the individual to carry out crime; strain theory is motivated on the strain that is put on the person to carry out crime (Agnew, 1992). Social learning theory is founded on the fundamentals from a group that bring about a constructive or positive view of crime (Agnew, 1992). In accordance with strain theory, individual deviance is created due to negative treatment from others, and this causes anger and disappointment (Agnew, 1997a). Control theory, tho ugh, is founded on the lack of significant relationships with non-deviant others, i.e. family, church, and social learning theory is based on positive interactions with other that are considered deviant. (Agnew, 1992). The attractiveness of strain/anomie theory began in the late 1960s owing to the need of data presented by analysts and the political and social environment of the decade (Agnew Passas, 1997). The lack of supporting evidence can be due to many deficiencies in the original methods used by the analysts (Agnew Passas, 1997). Generalization of the theory and an ignorance of the earlier revisions caused a body of work that distorted the original definition of anomie/strain theory (Agnew Passas, 1997). Together with these deficiencies, modern theorists have claimed that empirical evidence in fact supports the theory (Agnew, Cullen, Burton, Evans, Gregory 1996). Mertons Strain Theory: Economic Goals, Educational Means Delinquency In the history of modern criminology, few theories have realized the impact of Mertons (1983) theory of strain and deviance. It has withstood a half-century despite a sizeable amount of literature opposed to its theoretical basis. Disillusionment with its empirical verification, on the other hand, has caused many to discard it as a possible explanation for delinquency (Hirschi, 1969; Johnson, 1979; Kornhauser, 1978). In view of the fact that the strain theory incorporates both mental and structural account for crime, its dismissal would be a critical loss to criminology. Together with reservations about the significance of social class in the birth of crime, the denial of Mertons theory of structurally induced strain could create a typical shift toward theories of individual behavior lacking structural context. The historical significance and unique contribution of strain theory deserves a re-examination before its final rejection. Mertons original explanation of strain was criticized for its theoretical uncertainty (Cohen, 1955; Lindesmith Gagnon, 1964). For instance, Merton gave examples of deviance perhaps linked with different methods of adjustment although he did not offer any statements regarding the methods by which each adaptive method might impact various crime results (Clinard, 1964a). The consequences of this type of vagueness are apparent in trials for the research of strain impacts on juvenile delinquency. The theory appears to mean that innovation causes utilitarian kinds of delinquency although does not state whether strain clarifies common kinds of juvenile crime for example sabotage or personal crimes of a non-utilitarian character (Gibbons Jones, 1975; Thio, 1975). The theory is implied as to whether strain should foresee crime prevalence or frequency or both, or critical against non-critical types. Akers operationalization of Agnews theory: Sources of strain Akers (2000) has operationalized Agnews version of the Strain Theory, as follows: Failure to achieve positively valued goals: the gap between expectations and actual achievements will derive from short- and long-term personal goals, and some of those goals will never be realized because of unavoidable circumstances including both inherent weaknesses and opportunities blocked by others; and the difference between the view of what a person believes the outcome should be and what actually results increases personal disappointment. Frustration is not necessarily due to any outside interference with valued goals, but a direct effect on anger, and has indirect effects on serious crime and aggression. Agnew and White (1992) have produced empirical evidence suggesting that general strain theory was positively able to relate delinquents and drug users, and that the strongest effect on the delinquents studied was the delinquency of their peers. They were interested in drug use because it did not appear to represent an attempt to direct anger or escape pain, but is used prim arily to manage the negative affect caused by strain. Up to this stage, strain theory had been related with types of strain as opposed to sources of strain while the stress of ones surroundings can be shown to involve with the expectations of just and fair results. These may be major events or minor hassles that build up and discourage over time. Frustration causes disappointment, bitterness, and anger all the emotions normally linked with strain in criminology. It is normal for persons to feel pain when they are refused fair compensations for their efforts, especially when measured against the endeavors and compensations given to others for similar results. Agnew (1992) deals with anger as the most decisive emotion as it is almost always aimed outwards and is generally linked to breakdowns in relationships. Study shows that the stress/crime relationship seems to hold regardless of guilt emotions, age, and capacity to deal with when events take place simultaneously or in close sequence. Robert Agnew In 1992, Agnew maintained that strain theory could be fundamental in describing crime and deviance, however that it required review so that it was not attached to social class or cultural standards; however, re-focused on self standards. He mapped out a general strain theory that is neither structural nor interpersonal; however, emotional and motivated on an individuals direct social status. He claimed that an individuals concrete or anticipated failure to realize positively valued objectives, actual or expected removal of positive values, and actual or anticipated presentation of negative motivation all results in strain. Strain appears from negative relationships with others. If persons are not dealt in the way that they anticipate or want to be dealt, they will lose their trust in the role others play for achieving goals. Anger and disappointment support unconstructive relationships. This will generally involve more one-sided action since there will be an innate wish to avoid unwanted rejections, supporting more general isolation. If specific rejections are general feelings that the situation is unjust or unfair, stronger and more negative feelings may inspire the person to engage in crime. This is especially true for younger people, and Agnew proposed that study concentrate on the overall , currency, duration, and grouping of such stressful events to find out whether a person deal with strain in a criminal or compliant way. He especially found temperament, intelligence, factors interpersonal skills, relationship with criminal peers and conservative social support important factors of self-efficacy. Robert Dubin Dubin (1959) judged deviance as a task of society, disputing the hypothesis that the deviant action resulting from circumstances of anomie is essentially damaging to society. For instance, a person in the ritualistic environment is still playing by the regulations and contributing to society. The only deviance lies in discarding one or more of its prescribed objectives. Dubin maintained that Mertons concentration on the interactions between societys stressed objectives, and institutionalized agreed methods was insufficient. Dubin thought an added difference should be made between cultural objectives, organizational methods and organizational standards since individuals identify standards individually, explaining them and operating them in a different way. The individual educational skills, principles, and behaviors may influence a person to internalize a norm one way. Another individual with different experiences may justifiably internalize in a different way. Both may be doing realistically in their own terms; however, the behavior is different. Dubin also expanded Mertons classification to fourteen, with particular focus in Innovation and Ritualism. Merton put forward that the new response to strain was linking the objective, although discarding the organizing agreed methods of realizing the objective. The connotation appeared to be that not only did the person discard the methods, he must vigorously innovate unlawful methods as a replacement which would not always be correct. Dubin also believed that a difference should be made between the real behavior of the individual and the principles that pushed the behavior. Rather than Innovation, Dubin put forward Behavioral Innovation and Value Innovation. Likewise, in Ritualism, he put forward Behavioral Ritualism and Value Ritualism (Dubin, 1959). Merton (1959) remarked on Dubins changes, claiming that although Dubin did make suitable contributions, they took the motivations off of deviancy. Operationalizing Strain for Juveniles Merton termed strain as an individuals response to a dysfunction between objectives and accessibility to the socially accepted methods for their achievement. Mertons original writings (1938; 1957) appear to spell out clearly that economic wealth is a principal goal in the meritocratic society and that education is the conservative ways for realizing wealth. At present, for instance, a college degree is usually considered as a minimum requirement for entry to a good job or professional job. Strain would be possible when a person is firmly dedicated to making much wealth nevertheless considers college as outside attainment. It is thought that structurally induced strain amongst juveniles would be considered correctly as the dysfunction between economic objectives and hopes for finishing college. On the contrary, the preferential operationalization of strain in delinquency researches has been the difference between educational aims and hopes. The argument for using this evaluation is that job expectations are less helpful as objectives for juveniles since these expectations are too far removed from their conscious concerns (Agnew, 1986, 1984; Elliott, Huizinga, Ageton, 1985). This normally used measure deviates considerably from Mertons theory. If strain is redefined completely in the field of education, the educational methods in Mertons original theory become both objectives and methods, and the central theoretical significance of economic objectives is lost. The basis for this version of strain for juveniles is challenging. Although juveniles may have trouble in thinking about future jobs, their financial aspirations may be strong and clear. For both hypothetical and rational motives, as a result, juvenile strain is a product of the dysfunction between economic objectives and educational prospects rather than as a dysfunction between educational aims and prospects. Conclusion In 1969, Hirschi proposed within a control outlook that high expectations to customary objectives performed as limitations on delinquency (1969) and that the calculation of a measure of strain would not enhance the descriptive competence of dedication alone. As against the strain position that high expectations in the presence of low expectations raise the chances of delinquency, Hirschi (1969) presumed that the (negative) relation between aspirations and delinquency (supportive of control theory) does not reverse when expectations are held constant. His assessment using educational expectations showed that while higher goals reduced the chance of delinquency in his sample, differences in educational expectations are not significant in the causation of delinquency for two reasons: few boys in the sample have expectations considerably beyond their expectations; and those boys whose expectations far exceed their expectations are at no greater risk to be delinquent than those boys whose expectations are the same (1969). More researches by Liska (1971) with several data sets strengthened Hirschis result. Similar to Hirschi, Liska computed juvenile strain as the dysfunction between educational expectations and reported results showing that Mertons stress proposition might be interpreted more simply by dedication or control theory. Therefore the most overwhelming criticism of strain theory relates to its noticeable failure in empirical research, mainly its failure in relation to control theory (Johnson, 1979; Kornhauser, 1978). In contrast, the majority of the studies supporting such results ignored the importance of economic success objectives in creating strain (Bernard, 1984). Hirschi recognized the possible value of income expectations in testing control and strain proposals (1969). His and Liskas denial of strain theory, though, depended on the assessment of objectives and methods as educational expectations Is EC Law Compatible with Parliamentary Sovereignty? Is EC Law Compatible with Parliamentary Sovereignty? Is the primacy of EC law over inconsistent UK statutes compatible with the doctrine of Parliamentary Sovereignty? The notion of Parliament as the supreme law-making body in the UK is a long-standing shibboleth of the British constitution[1]. Acts of Parliament have traditionally been deemed to be the highest form of law in the UK, and the courts were denied the authority to challenge them[2]. In 1972, however, the signing of the Treaty of Rome brought the UK within the scope of EC law[3]. The European Court of Justice has emphasised the primacy of EC law over the national law of its member states[4] and national courts are expected to recognise this. The British courts’ apparent capitulation[5] might suggest that Parliamentary sovereignty has now been usurped by the primacy of EC law. If true, this would be a major upheaval in our constitutional framework. However, on a closer analysis it seems that accession to the EC has had a less revolutionary effect on the British constitution than was initially feared. This paper will consider the relationship between these two seemingly irreconcilable doctrines and examine the question of whether they are capable of co-existence. Parliamentary Sovereignty Parliamentary sovereignty has a lengthy history in British constitutional law[6]. The definitive analysis was provided by Albert Dicey in the late 19th Century in his text Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution[7]. Essentially, the principle provides that Parliament is the highest law-making authority in the UK. It â€Å"has the right to make or unmake any law whatever; and further, that no person or body is recognised by the law of England as having a right to override or set aside the legislation of Parliament.†[8] Dicey expands on this assertion to emphasise that Parliament was competent to pass laws on any subject[9]. The only thing that it could not do is bind its successors[10]. Furthermore, the courts lack the authority to challenge any statute that has been enacted using the correct procedure[11]. Primacy of EC Law Britain acceded to the European Communities in 1973, with the signing of the Treaty of Rome. EC law was given effect in Britain through the enactment of the European Communities Act 1972, which gave direct effect and application to EC law[12]. Article 10 of the Treaty of Rome, as amended, states that there is a duty on all member states to comply with Community law and not to impede its application and the European Court of Justice has vociferously emphasised its expectation that EC law will prevail where it conflicts with the domestic law of member states[13]. In Costa, for example, the ECJ states that â€Å"the precedence of Community law is confirmed by Art 189 (now 249) EC, whereby a regulation â€Å"shall be binding† and directly applicable in all Member States†[14]. In other words, EC law takes primacy over domestic law. The British courts have since demonstrated their willingness to comply with this instruction[15]. In Factortame No. 2[16], for example, Lord Bridge stated that â€Å"under the 1972 Act, it has always been clear that it was the duty of a UK court when delivering final judgment to override any rule of national law found to be in conflict with any directly enforceable Community law.†[17] Conflict between the doctrines The potential for conflict here is self-evident. The courts cannot serve two masters but, as long as these two competing doctrines co-exist, this effectively appears to be what they are being asked to do. On the one hand, Parliamentary sovereignty dictates that the courts have no right to question an Act of Parliament. On the other, EC law, which declares itself to be supreme, expects national courts to declare Acts of Parliament invalid to the extent that they are inconsistent with EC Law. On a practical level, it appears that the primacy of EC law has overwhelmed Parliamentary Sovereignty. The UK courts have grown more comfortable with applying EC law where it conflicts with UK statutes and EC law has become an accepted part of the British legal system. As Munro points out, however, it is important to remember that Parliamentary sovereignty is a legal doctrine[18]. It is not concerned with the political or practical effects of accession upon the authority of Parliament, but with whether, legally speaking, parliamentary sovereignty is preserved[19]. This is an important consideration. In cases that followed the enactment of the 1972 Act, Lord Denning attempted to reconcile the apparently conflicting norms[20]. He argued that, although EC law was treated by the courts as prevailing over conflicting domestic law, EC law was only offered this status on the basis of an Act of Parliament, the 1972 Act. As the 1972 Act has no greater status than any other parliamentary statute, it could be repealed by an express provision in a subsequent Act of Parliament. The legal concept of Parliamentary sovereignty is therefore preserved.[21] The 1972 is not presented as being in any way superior to a normal Act of Parliament[22]. Indeed, during the ministerial discussions that preceded the passing of the Act it was acknowledged that any attempt to do so could readily be overturned by a subsequent Parliament[23]. Of course, the doctrine of implied repeal cannot operate in respect of the 1972 Act since it is not considered to be overridden by subsequent contradictory enactments. As Munro points out, however, this is a characteristic shared by other legislation and does not necessarily threaten the sovereignty of Parliament[24]. Ward believes that parliamentary sovereignty is an archaic legal fiction that ignores political realities and serves no purpose in a modern setting shaped by the twin influences of globalisation and decentralisation of power[25]. He considers that we would be best served by abandoning the idea of Parliamentary sovereignty in favour of a â€Å"new constitutional order†[26]. However, even he acknowledges that, on the legal plane at least, the concept of Parliamentary sovereignty undoubtedly continues to exist alongside EC law[27]. Conclusion As Munro has argued, is important to distinguish the legal concept of Parliamentary sovereignty from a political or pragmatic interpretation of the term. While it may be that repeal of the 1972 Act and withdrawal from the EC would be impossible in real terms, Parliament retains the legal option to do this. Therefore, it is theoretically possible to reconcile the apparently conflicting doctrines within our constitutional framework. BIBLIOGRAPHY Barnett, H.A. Constitutional and Administrative Law (Cavendish: London) 2004 Bradley, A. â€Å"The Sovereignty of Parliament – Form or Substance?† in Jowell, J. and Oliver, D. The Changing Constitution (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 2004 Dicey, A.V. Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (Macmillan Education: Basingstoke) 1959 Goldsworthy, J.D. The Sovereignty of Parliament: History and Philosophy (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 1999 Munro, C. Studies in Constitutional Law (Butterworths: London) 1999 Ward, I. A Critical Introduction to European Law (Butterworths: London) 1996 Ward, I. The Margins of European Law (Macmillan Education: Basingstoke) 1996 Algemene Transport en Expeditie Onderneming Van Gend en Loos v Netherlands Inland Revenue Administration [1963] C.M.L.R. 105 Costa v. Ente Nazionale per lEnergia Elettrica (ENEL) [1968] C.M.L.R. 267 McCarthys Ltd v Smith (1979) 3 All ER 325 R v Secretary of State for Transport ex p. Factortame Ltd (No. 2) [1991] 1 A.C. 603 (HL) 1 Footnotes [1] See generally Goldsworthy, J.D. The Sovereignty of Parliament: History and Philosophy (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 1999 [2] Bradley, A. â€Å"The Sovereignty of Parliament – Form or Substance?† in Jowell, J. and Oliver, D. The Changing Constitution (Oxford University Press: Oxford) 2004 (hereinafter â€Å"Bradley†) at 28 [3] Barnett, H.A. Constitutional and Administrative Law (Cavendish: London) 2004 (hereinafter â€Å"Barnett†) at 192 [4]Ibid [5] Bradley supra note 2 at 46 [6] See e.g. Munro, C. Studies in Constitutional Law (Butterworths: London) 1999 (hereinafter â€Å"Munro†) at 127 [7] Dicey, A.V. Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (Macmillan Education: Basingstoke) 1959 (hereinafter â€Å"Dicey†) [8] Dicey supra note 7 at 39 [9] Ibid [10] Dicey supra note 7 at 44 [11] Dicey supra note 7 at 45 [12] Munro supra note 6 at 201 [13] See e.g. Algemene Transport en Expeditie Onderneming Van Gend en Loos v Netherlands Inland Revenue Administration [1963] C.M.L.R. 105 (hereinafter â€Å"Van Gend en Loos†) and Costa v. Ente Nazionale per lEnergia Elettrica (ENEL) [1968] C.M.L.R. 267 (hereinafter â€Å"Costa†) [14] Costa supra note 13 at 271 [15] Bradley supra note 2 at 46 [16] R v Secretary of State for Transport ex p. Factortame Ltd (No. 2) [1991] 1 A.C. 603 (HL) (hereinafter â€Å"Factortame†) [17] Factortame supra note 16 at 659 [18] Munro supra note 6 at 206 [19] Ibid [20] Ward, I. The Margins of European Law (Macmillan Education: Basingstoke) 1996 (hereinafter â€Å"Margins†) at 76 [21] See e.g. McCarthys Ltd v Smith (1979) 3 All ER 325 [22] Munro supra note 6 at 204 [23] Bradley supra note 2 at 47 [24] Munro supra note 6 at 207 [25] Margins supra note 7 at Chapter 4 [26] Margins supra note 7 at 82 [27] Margins supra note 7 at 85

Disadvantages Of Using Thermodynamics

Disadvantages Of Using Thermodynamics Please find my enclosed my report entitled :What kind of things that related with thermodynamics field can contribute our daily life. I trust you will find the report has covered the question in a comprehensive fashion. Should there be any questions regarding this report, please do not hesitate to contact me at the address. I will also include my email address, so that initial contact can be made and further arrangements made should that be necessary. The research report will describe that what is thermodynamics? What are the advantage of thermodynamics? How thermodynamics will make our life easy? The research report will show different branches of thermodynamics and how it works. The report will also highlight some histories of thermodynamics .On the other hand, there are some analysis and facts relating with our daily life easier and more efficient. Justification The main reason for choosing this report is because Im interested in the thermodynamics, which is our daily exposure. I also want to specify my study in thermodynamics, which is major branch of my study which in mechanical engineering. Nowadays, thermodynamics technology are using everywhere and they make our life more convenient. So, I want to do research how thermodynamics works and how they contribute to our daily life. 1.0 Introduction Boiling water is hot. Ice is cold. The diversity between hot and cold is detected naturally ability to sense heat and its opposite. We measure heat with a thermometer and we assign it a temperature. Dictionary definition of hot and cold relate those sensation to our normal body temperature. Warm things have temperatures above our body temperature, and cold things have temperatures below our body temperature. In this way, humans are able to compare the temperatures of things and get a subjective sense of hotness or coldness. In one sense heat is a sensation in the mind. But we know that some physical process is causing our nerves to be stimulated in this way. What is happening in nature that causes us to feel these sensation of hot and cold? It isnt only human beings who respond to heat flow and changes in temperature. Heat affects all material objects and the environment as well. Temperature determines whether most substances exist in a solid. Liquid. Or gaseous state, Heating and cooling, if it changes the temperature of a substance enough, can change the state of matter. SO basic is the phenomenon of temperature that physicist consider it a fundamental property of matter. Along with volume mass, electric charge, and time. The word thermodynamics consist of thermo, meaning heat, and dynamics, which refers to movement or change. In this broadest sense, thermodynamics is about heat and how heat moves and changes. The fact that heat move at all was itself a discovery of considerable importance. Its not at all obvious. You light a campfire and it warms you. It has heat. The fire goes out, and heat seems to disappear. Common experience will not tell you that none of that heat has really disappeared. Heat is a form of energy and energy can b neither created nor destroyed. That, as you will learn, is one of the most important of the laws of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is really all about the study of thermal energy and how it behaves. Over time, Scientists and engineers learned that heat energy is related to work. The classic example is the steam engine, in which heat energy is used to boil water, creating steam to push a piston attached to a rotary shaft. The shaft can then be used to turn a train wheels or a ships propeller of the machines in a factory. In this process heat energy is converted into a mechanical energy, Understanding what heat and temperature are and how energy is transformed into different forms in essential to understanding the modern industrial world and how we get thing done. As we shall see, much of our theoretical understanding of thermodynamics did not come about until people could examine the functioning of real machines like the steam engine. 2.0 History of thermodynamics The ancient Greeks believe that the world is built up of four basic elements: water, air, earth, and fire. However they did not understand the true nature of heat, the ancient Greeks learned to use it to operate simple mechanical devices. Little is known of the life of Hero of Alexandria. He wrote treatises on working with the simple machines, like the lever, the pulley, the wedge, the wheel, the gear, and the screw. He described a primitive steam engine called an aeolipile. It consisted of a reservoir of boiling water connected by a tube to a large, hollow sphere with open, bent tubes coming out of it. The sphere was attached to a gimbal so that it could rotate. Heated steam entering the hollow sphere caused it to spin as it blew the steam out of the bent tubes. The aeolipile was the first device known to transform heat into ratery motion in effect, Heros device was the first steam turbine The history of thermodynamics started with G.Galilel(1597) who introduced the theory of temperature and he also invented one of the first thermometers. It was G. Black (1770) who was the first to use the term Thermodynamics. In 1772 G. Wilke introduced the unit of measuring the a mount of heat a Calorie. It was W. Tompson (1859) who introduced term thermodynamics into conventional use. In the 20th century, thermodynamics became a basic independent division of Theoretical Physics dealing with the study of general properties of physical systems under equilibrium, as well as common regularities taking place with attaining equilibrium. Thermodynamics is divided into phenomenological and statistical thermodynamics 3.0What is thermodynamics? Thermodynamics is a division of natural science related with heat, energy and work it defines macroscopic variables that show material and radiation and explains how they are related and by what law. Thermodynamics shows the average behavior of , large numbers of small divisions. 3.1Braches of thermodynamics 3.1.1 Classical Thermodynamics Classical thermodynamics shows the changes of thermodynamic in terms, either of their time-balanced equilibrium states, or else of their continually repeated like clockwork processes, but, formally, not both in the same account. It uses only time-balanced, or equilibrium, small quantities that can measure in the laboratory, counting as time-consistence a long-term time-average of a quantity, such as a flow, achieved by a continuously repetitive process. Classical thermodynamics does not accept change over time as a central circumstance in its account of processes. An equilibrium state stands constantly without change over time, while a continuously repeated cyclic process runs repeatedly without change over time. In the classical field closely and purely in terms of cyclic action, the best internal of the working body of a cyclic process is not considered; the working body thus does not have a characterized interior thermodynamic state of its own because no expectation is made that it should be in thermodynamic stability; only its inputs and outputs of energy as heat and work are considered. It is of course possible, and absolutely common, for the result in terms of equilibrium states of a system to show cycles composed of indefinitely many equilibrium states. 3.1.2 Statistical Thermodynamics Statistical Thermodynamics, also called statistical mechanics, appeared with the development of atomic and molecular approaches in the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century. It shows an explanation of classical thermodynamics. It considers the microscopic cooperation between individual particles and their combined motions, in terms of classical or of quantum mechanics. Its explanation is in terms of data that rest on the fact the system is built of several species of particles or collective motions, the branches of each species individually being in some sense all alike. 3.1.3Laws of Thermodynamics The laws of thermodynamics are different from others. Therere altogether four of them. Theyre arranged from zero to four. Not because they are arranged by discovery in order but because they are numbered some especially. The second law is different from others and therere no effect on others. It has different formulas. The first law describe the quantity of internal energy of a system, which was found from kinetic energy and from its potential energy which relates to its surroundings. The first law describe the transferring of heat between closed system as work. The second law include two theories which is known as temperature and entropy. Entropy shows the limit which is known as irreversibility from the beginning, on the work that can reach to an external system by thermodynamics process. The effects of temperature, which halfway showed by the zeroth law, which has quantities in the direction of energy flow as heat between two system in thermal connection and which is known as comm on sense of hot and cold 3.2.1.Zeroth Law If the object A is thermally equal with object B, and B is thermally equal with C. So, the object A is thermally equal with object C. This is more a matter of relationship than of physics. If they have the same temperature, the two objects are thermally equal. If object A and object B has the same temperature, and the object B and C have the same temperature, then both A object and B object have the same temperature. The most important thing in Zeroth Law is that, when a hot and cold object are place in contact together, the thermal energy will flow from hotter to the colder object until their thermal energy will remain equilibrium. 3.2.2.First Law Lets consider the first law as an isolated system. That means heat and energy can neither leave or enter the circle. Such system does not done any work. But we can imagine it with a certain energy inside it, namely U, which depends on the kinetic of the molecular system and also the systems temperature. The internal energy is the same with potential energy because it has a property that does not work. But it still has the potential to do work. The first law describes that the internal energy of the system increases if heat is added to a system. The first law can just show another way of the laws of conservation of energy. As heat and work are another form of energy, if they go outside of the system, it will affect the internal energy of the system 3.2.3.Second Law The Second law is popular for its formulation of entropy. Entropy is a technical term for talking about confusion which is found in the 19th century. The same theory let us know that heat energy automatically flow cold from hot and theyre not flowing in the opposite direction. This also remind us that if the ordered system can turn easily into disordered system, But disordered system cannot turn easily into the ordered system themselves easily. 3.2.4.Third Law The third law of thermodynamics states that if an object reaches the absolute zero absolute zero of temperature (-273C), its atoms will stop moving. 4.0How Thermodynamics Works? 4.0.1.Refrigerator The system of the refrigerator cycle is continuous. We will show the system of refrigerator which uses with pure ammonia which keep the refrigerator cool in the following example. Ammonia boils at -27 degrees F. Thats why the refrigerator can always keep cool. The compressor in refrigerator compresses the ammonia gas and they heats up as it reaches high pressure. At the back of the refrigerator, there are coils that make hot ammonia gas to take its heat. When it reaches high pressure, the ammonia gas become liquid as its pressure is high. The pressurized ammonia liquid let flow through the expansion valve. Theres a small hole within an expansion valve. One side of the hold let flow the high pressured ammonia liquid and other side let flow the low-pressure ammonia gas because the gas are sucked out of that side by compressor. The ammonia liquid boils as the boiling point is very low and it vaporizes. The gas temperature dropping to -27F and that makes the refrigerator cold inside. The cold ammonia gas sucked by the compressor and repeats the circle again and again. 4.0.2 Air Conditioner Therere some major parts of an air conditioner which freezes and cool the air in two directions: Indoors and outdoors: Evaporator, which works for the liquid refrigerant Condenser, which work for transferring heat Expansion valve, which make refrigerant into the evaporator Compressor, which pressurizes refrigerant For the cold side of an air conditioner, there is a fan which blows air over the freezed coil to cool down the air into the room and the evaporator. The compressor is in the hot side and also the condenser. Another fan is to release hot air coming off the compressed cool to the outdoors. Between those coils, theres an expansion valve which release into the evaporator the compressed liquid. If the liquid reaches into the evaporator, it experiences the pressure drop and change back into a gas. The compressor is a large device that pressurizes the refrigerant gas to turn back into a liquid, which is also known as electric pump. 4.0.3 Microwave Oven As it is a microwave oven, it simply uses microwave to warm up or cook food. Microwave is a kind of wave that stays between radio wave and infrared radiation. For the microwave system, the commonly used wave which has the frequency of about 2,450 megahertz. They have interesting effects. Water, fats and sugars absorbs such kind of waves. If theyre absorbed, they change them into atomic motion which transform into heat. These wave have another interesting effect too. They cannot be absorbed by most plastics or glass. 5.0Advantages of using Thermodynamics The devices as shown above each of them have Advantages. By using refrigerator we can keep perishable food, such as, vegetables and milk for much longer periods. Refrigerators also have a freezing part that will keep frozen foods and make ice to use in beverages By using Air Conditioner, its more comfortable and we can adjust the indoor temperature. In extreme heat, air- conditioning can be a life saver, improves the air quality and most air conditioner also reduce the humidity level, which helps both comfort. For Microwave oven, it can cook many food about 1/4th of the time necessary on a gas burner. It saves time in heating frozen foods. Food gets cooked uniformly. 6.0 Disadvantages of using Thermodynamics Thermodynamics not only have advantages but also have disadvantages. By using refrigerator it costs a lot of electricity to run. They are also environmentally unfriendly the refrigerator also contain refrigerant that can be damaging to the environment because of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) content. This material is suspected to be the cause of reduction of earths ozone layer. When we frequently use the air conditioner, the air conditioning disease will occur. It is characterized by fatigue weakness, cough or fever and so on. Air conditioners energy consumption is considerable. It will consume a lot of energy. It also release CFC, which is environmentally unfriendly. Microwaves can cook food in very short period. Due to short period of cooking, food does not become brown unless the microwave has a browning unit. Sometimes unwanted chemicals migrate to food from plastic cook ware or food packages. The short cooking time may not give a chance of blending of flavours as in conventional methods. 7.0Recommendation As a result of the research carried out, it appears to be necessary to understand all the field of thermodynamics. Future technologies are requiring new materials with unusual effects that will either be prepared by high-temperature techniques. One of the important thing that can affect the pollution to the environment easily are the new devices. Equipment using volatile fluids that can harm to the stratosphere and destroy the ozone will have to be replaced. Devices that emit sulfur oxides will have to be modified to reduce sulfur emission to very low values. The ability of solar energy used devices will have to be improved and nuclear power plants will have to be designed to make less serious accidents. So that energy production by combustion to carbon dioxide is greatly reduced. 8.0 Conclusion The research report has taken information from various sources to understand what is thermodynamics; what are laws of thermodynamics; how they works; and how they make our life easier? It shows that thermodynamics used devices are very convenient to use. If there were no thermodynamics devices in this world it would be many difficulties to pass a day. By improving the uses and devices of thermodynamics, they can make our life more convenient and can reduce the environmental reduce the environmental side effects.